Introduction
To understand modern Russia, you have to look at both its Soviet past and its post-Soviet transformation. Russia presents a fascinating case of a country that transitioned away from communism in the early 1990s but still retains many authoritarian characteristics in its current political system.
For AP Comparative Government and Politics students, Russia offers a unique opportunity to study a hybrid regime—one that blends democratic structures like elections and constitutions with autocratic practices, such as centralized power and controlled media.
1. Historical Background: From the USSR to the Russian Federation
Russia was the largest republic of the Soviet Union, a one-party communist state that existed from 1922 to 1991. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Russia emerged as an independent nation, inheriting not only nuclear weapons and a vast territory but also severe economic and political instability.
a. Post-Soviet Transition
- Boris Yeltsin became the first President of the Russian Federation.
- The 1990s were marked by:
- Privatization of state-owned industries (often leading to oligarchic control)
- Hyperinflation
- Weak political institutions
This period is often described as chaotic, which helps explain the strong public support for a more stable and centralized leadership in the 2000s.
2. The Constitution and Structure of Government
Russia adopted a new constitution in 1993, establishing a semi-presidential system. On paper, the constitution outlines a democratic framework, but in practice, power is heavily skewed in favor of the president.
a. President
- Head of state and the most powerful figure in the system.
- Directly elected for a six-year term (amended from four in 2012).
- Powers include:
- Appointing the Prime Minister and federal ministers
- Vetoing legislation
- Controlling foreign policy and the military
- Issuing decrees with the force of law
Since Vladimir Putin took power in 2000 (either as President or Prime Minister), the presidency has become increasingly dominant.
b. Prime Minister
- Head of government, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Duma (lower house).
- Oversees domestic policy and the economy but remains subordinate to the president.
c. Federal Assembly (Legislature)
- Bicameral parliament consisting of:
- State Duma (lower house): 450 members elected through a mixed electoral system.
- Federation Council (upper house): 170 members, appointed by regional governors and legislatures.
While the Duma has legislative power, in reality, it mostly supports the executive branch. It rarely opposes presidential initiatives.
3. Electoral System and Political Parties
a. Elections
- Russia holds regular elections, but they are often criticized for:
- Lack of transparency
- Media bias
- Disqualification of opposition candidates
- Use of state resources by ruling elites
b. United Russia
- The dominant party, closely associated with Vladimir Putin.
- Controls a majority in the Duma and most regional governments.
- Acts as a vehicle for executive authority, rather than a party driven by ideology.
c. Other Parties
- Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF): Appeals to nostalgia for the Soviet era.
- Liberal Democratic Party (LDPR): Nationalist and populist, despite the misleading name.
- A Just Russia: Often supports Kremlin policies, acts as a “loyal opposition.”
- Yabloko and other liberal parties have limited access to media and elections.
Russia’s multiparty system exists in form, but it functions more like a managed democracy, where outcomes are often predetermined.
4. Judiciary and Rule of Law
a. Constitutional Court
- Reviews the constitutionality of laws.
- Theoretically independent but in practice, rarely challenges executive power.
b. Legal System
- Russia’s judiciary is heavily influenced by the executive.
- Courts are used to silence critics, target opposition, or legitimize Kremlin decisions.
- The rule of law is weak, and corruption is a significant concern in legal and administrative systems.
5. Federalism and Regional Power
Russia is a federation with 89 regions, but real autonomy is limited.
- Regional governors used to be elected but are now mostly appointed by the president.
- Federal power has been recentralized under Putin, weakening regional independence.
- The Kremlin uses “power vertical” governance—centralizing authority while maintaining formal structures of federalism.
6. Political Culture and Civil Society
Understanding Russia’s political culture requires looking beyond formal institutions. Russian citizens have a long historical relationship with centralized authority, dating back to the Tsars, then the Soviet regime, and now the modern state under Putin.
a. Political Culture
- Deference to authority is a long-standing pattern; many Russians equate strong leadership with national stability.
- Citizens often prioritize order and national strength over individual liberties, especially after the instability of the 1990s.
- There’s a general sense of political cynicism—many feel elections are symbolic and that change through the system is difficult.
b. Civil Society
- Independent NGOs and civil society groups exist but face tight restrictions.
- Laws such as the “foreign agent” law label NGOs receiving international funding as potentially dangerous.
- Activists, journalists, and organizations working on human rights, election monitoring, or anti-corruption are often targets of surveillance or legal prosecution.
Despite these constraints, civil society has moments of resilience, especially among youth and digital activists.
7. Media and Information Control
In democratic systems, media serve as a watchdog. In Russia, media is used more as a tool for political control.
a. State Control of Media
- Major TV channels are either state-owned or loyal to the Kremlin.
- These outlets dominate the information space, especially for older Russians.
- They promote pro-government narratives, support foreign policy, and often discredit opposition figures.
b. Independent Media and Digital Resistance
- Some independent outlets exist (e.g., Meduza, Novaya Gazeta), but face censorship or are forced into exile.
- The internet remains a space for dissent, though platforms are increasingly regulated.
- Popular opposition voices like Alexei Navalny used social media to challenge the regime—until state responses became more repressive.
8. Foreign Policy and Global Role
Russia plays a complex and often controversial role on the world stage. Its foreign policy reflects national pride, a desire for influence, and strategic assertiveness.
a. Near Abroad and Post-Soviet Space
- Russia considers former Soviet republics (Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, etc.) as part of its strategic sphere.
- Uses military intervention, cyber tactics, and energy leverage to influence neighbors.
b. Military Strength and Strategic Alliances
- Russia maintains one of the largest military forces in the world.
- It is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and often positions itself against U.S. and NATO influence.
c. Ukraine and Global Sanctions
- The annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the invasion of Ukraine in 2022 led to widespread international condemnation.
- Sanctions from Western countries have targeted Russia’s economy and political elite.
- Russia frames its actions as protecting Russian interests, while critics view them as breaches of international law.
9. Current Issues and Challenges
Russia faces numerous internal and external challenges that shape its political future.
a. Authoritarian Consolidation
- Recent constitutional amendments (2020) allow Putin to remain in power until 2036.
- Political pluralism is declining; opposition leaders are imprisoned or exiled.
- Election processes are increasingly controlled, and independent oversight is minimal.
b. Economic Pressures
- Sanctions and falling oil prices have hurt economic growth.
- The war in Ukraine has triggered capital flight, inflation, and public budget stress.
- Despite these issues, state media blames the West and promotes national resilience.
c. Public Protests and Youth Activism
- Large-scale protests over election fraud (2011), corruption, and Navalny’s arrest have occurred, particularly in urban centers.
- The state responds with crackdowns, detentions, and internet censorship.
- A younger, digitally connected generation is increasingly frustrated with the lack of political openness.
10. Summary Table: Key Features of Russian Politics
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Type of Regime | Hybrid regime with authoritarian dominance |
| Executive Power | President dominates; Prime Minister has limited authority |
| Legislature | Bicameral (Duma and Federation Council); often rubber-stamps policy |
| Elections | Regular but not fully free or fair |
| Judiciary | Weak independence; used to reinforce executive control |
| Media Environment | Largely state-controlled; opposition media suppressed |
| Civil Society | Heavily regulated; NGOs face legal hurdles |
| Foreign Policy | Assertive; focused on Eurasian dominance and countering Western influence |
| Major Issues | Sanctions, war in Ukraine, protest movements, long-term authoritarian rule |
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